Chapter Note: Transport in animals | Biology for GCSE/IGCSE

Year 11 Exam>Year 11 Notes>Biology for GCSE/IGCSE>Chapter Note: Transport in animals

Circulatory System Overview

Definition: The circulatory system is a network of blood vessels equipped with a pump and valves that ensure the one-way flow of blood.
Single Circulation:
- Involves blood passing through the heart only once.
- Example: Fish have a single circulation system.
Double Circulation:
- Entails blood passing through the heart twice.
- Example: Mammals exhibit double circulation.
- Advantageous as it maintains higher blood pressure compared to single circulation.
Blood Flow Process:
- Pulmonary Circuit:
  - Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium and then the right ventricle.
  - It is pumped by the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.
  - Oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the left atrium and left ventricle.
  - Oxygenated blood is circulated to the rest of the body.
- Systemic Circuit:
  - Systemic capillaries, aorta, pulmonary artery, and pulmonary vein are involved.
  - Various valves like atrioventricular and semilunar valves regulate blood flow.
  - Blood is pumped to the body cells for oxygen exchange.

Superior Vena Cava	Right Atrium	Atrioventricular Valve	Right Ventricle	Semilunar Valve	Pulmonary Artery	Lungs
Pulmonary Vein	Left Atrium	Atrioventricular Valve	Left Ventricle	Semilunar Valve	Aorta	Inferior Vena Cava

Functions of Different Structures in the Heart:
- Atrium:
  - The right and left atrium contract to pump blood into the right and left ventricles respectively.
- Ventricles:
  - The right ventricle contracts to pump blood to the lungs for oxygenation.
  - The left ventricle contracts to pump blood to the rest of the body, with a thicker wall for increased force due to longer distance.
- Atrioventricular Valves:
  - These valves separate the atria and ventricles on both sides of the heart, preventing backflow and ensuring one-way blood flow.
- Semilunar Valves:
  - Found in the pulmonary arteries and the aorta, they prevent backflow and ensure unidirectional blood flow in the arteries.
- Pulmonary Artery:
  - Carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
- Pulmonary Vein:
  - Carries blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
- Aorta:
  - A large artery carrying blood from the left ventricle to the body.
- Vena Cava:
  - A large vein transporting deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart (right atrium).
- Septum:
  - A muscular wall separating the heart's right and left sides to prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Activity of the Heart:
- Physical activity increases heart rate, which is the rate at which the heart beats.
- Pulse rate is a common method to measure heart rate, reflecting the heart's contractions and resulting blood pressure changes.
- During physical activity, increased energy demand in muscles necessitates quicker blood flow to supply oxygen/nutrients and remove waste products like carbon dioxide.
Electrocardiogram (ECG):
- An ECG device tracks heart activity accurately, measuring pulse rates by monitoring heart valve movements.

Coronary Heart Disease
- The heart muscles require a consistent blood supply since they are also active muscles.
- The coronary artery is crucial as it supplies blood to the heart muscles.
- Coronary heart disease occurs when the coronary artery becomes obstructed, leading to a lack of blood (and oxygen) in the heart muscles, ultimately resulting in a heart attack.
Causes of Coronary Heart Disease
- The narrowing of the coronary artery starts with the accumulation of cholesterol on its inner walls.
- Total blockage can happen when a blood clot obstructs these already narrowed arteries.
Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease
- Poor diet choices
- Stress
- Smoking
- Genetic predisposition
- Advancing age
- Gender (men are generally at higher risk)
Treatment Options
- Medications like blood thinners are prescribed to lessen the likelihood of blood clot formation.
- Surgical Treatments
  - Stent: A tube-shaped device inserted into coronary arteries to keep them open.
  - Angioplasty: A stent with an inflatable balloon to widen the artery further after stent insertion.
  - Bypass Surgery: Creating a new pathway for blood flow when the stent is in place.

Blood Vessels:
- Overview: Blood vessels are tube-like structures responsible for carrying blood throughout the body's tissues and organs.
- Pathway of Blood: Blood flows from the heart through a series of vessels:
  - Heart → Artery → Arteriole → Capillary → Venule → Vein → Heart.
Arteries:
- Function: Arteries transport blood away from the heart.
- Structural Features:
  - Thick muscular walls to withstand high blood pressure.
  - Narrow lumen that expands and contracts to maintain blood pressure.
  - No valves due to high pressure preventing backflow.
Arterioles:
- Description: Arterioles are smaller branches of arteries leading to capillaries.
- Characteristics:
  - Muscular/elastic walls that can constrict or dilate to regulate blood flow.
Capillaries:
- Function: Capillaries facilitate nutrient and waste exchange between blood and tissues.
- Features:
  - Single-cell thick walls for rapid diffusion.
  - Small lumen diameter allowing close proximity of blood cells to walls for efficient diffusion.
  - No valves due to narrow lumen ensuring unidirectional blood flow.
Venules:
- Definition: Venules are small vessels formed by the merging of capillaries.
Veins:
- Role: Veins carry blood back to the heart.
- Structural Traits:
  - Thin walls with less muscle and elastic fibers due to lower pressure.
  - Large lumen to reduce blood flow resistance.
  - Valves present to prevent backflow.
- Shunt Vessels:
  - Connect arterioles directly to venules, bypassing capillaries.
  - Allow for alternate blood flow routes.
  - Walls capable of constriction and dilation to regulate blood flow.

Introduction to Tissue Fluid:
- Tissue fluid is a fluid that surrounds and bathes most body tissues.
- It serves as a medium for the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the blood and the respiring tissues.
- For instance:
  - Waste products like CO2 move from cells to tissue fluid before entering the bloodstream.
  - Nutrients such as glucose move from the blood to tissue fluid before reaching the cells.
Formation and Function of Tissue Fluid:
- Tissue fluid is created by the leakage of certain substances from blood capillaries.
- It is then drained by the lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system.
- The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels that carry 'lymph' and lymph nodes that produce lymphocytes for immunity.
Composition of Blood:
- Blood is composed of various components, including:
  - Red blood cells
  - White blood cells
  - Platelets
  - Plasma
Blood Plasma:
- Blood plasma accounts for approximately 50% of blood volume.
- It is a yellowish liquid that transports other blood components like RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
Red Blood Cells (RBCs):
- RBCs contain hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen for distribution throughout the body.
White Blood Cells (WBCs):
- WBCs are vital components of the immune system that combat foreign organisms such as bacteria.
- There are two main types of WBCs:
  - Phagocytes, which engulf and digest pathogens through phagocytosis.
  - Lymphocytes, a type of WBC that generates antibodies.

Platelets
- Platelets are tiny blood components crucial for clot formation, which is a vital protective mechanism preventing excessive blood loss following an injury.
- Upon encountering tissue damage, platelets rapidly aggregate and release chemical signals that attract neighboring cells, leading to the formation of a clot.
- A sequence of chemical reactions occurs, where fibrinogen is transformed into fibrin, creating a mesh that entraps red blood cells (RBCs), eventually forming a solid clot that seals the wound.

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Circulatory System Overview

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Chapter Note: Transport in animals | Biology for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11

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Chapter Note: Transport in animals | Biology for GCSE/IGCSE - Year 11

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